Contacts for an improved high-density nonvolatile memory

ABSTRACT

An improved method for fabricating a three dimensional monolithic memory with increased density. The method includes forming conductors preferably comprising tungsten, then filling and planarizing; above the conductors forming semiconductor elements preferably comprising two diode portions and an antifuse, then filling and planarizing; and continuing to form conductors and semiconductor elements in multiple stories of memories. The arrangement of processing steps and the choice of materials decreases aspect ratio of each memory cell, improving the reliability of gap fill and preventing etch undercut.

This application is a continuation of Herner et al., “An Improved Method for Making High-Density Nonvolatile Memory,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/326,470, which is hereby fully incorporated into the instant patent application specification by reference. This application is related to the following applications, all continuations of 10/326,470, all filed on even date herewith and all assigned to the assignee of the present invention: and Herner et al., “An Improved Method for Making High-Density Nonvolatile Memory,” (attorney docket number MA-086-a); Herner et al., “An Improved Method for Making High-Density Nonvolatile Memory,” (attorney docket number MA-086-b); Herner et al., “An Improved Method for Making High-Density Nonvolatile Memory,” (attorney docket number MA-086-d); Herner et al., “An Improved Method for Making High-Density Nonvolatile Memory,” (attorney docket number MA-086-e); and Herner et al., “An Improved Method for Making High-Density Nonvolatile Memory,” (attorney docket number MA-086-f).

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Integrated circuits are typically fabricated in monocrystalline silicon substrate. This substrate is expensive, leading to continual efforts to fabricate more circuitry within a given area of substrate, increasing density.

For nonvolatile memory, a highly effective approach to increase density is to build monolithic three dimensional memories above the substrate, like those disclosed in Johnson et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,034,882; Johnson et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/928,536, filed Aug. 13, 2001; Knall et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,420,215; and Vyvoda et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/185,507, filed Jun. 27, 2002, all hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

Such memories can be improved to achieve higher densities.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is defined by the following claims, and nothing in this section should be taken as a limitation on those claims. In general, the invention is directed to an improved method for making a monolithic three dimensional memory.

A preferred embodiment provides for a three-dimensional memory cell comprising a first conductor extending in a first direction, a semiconductor element over the first conductor, the semiconductor element having a substantially cylindrical shape. Another preferred embodiment provides for a monolithic three dimensional memory array comprising such a cell, while still another embodiment provides for an electronic device comprising such a cell.

Other embodiments provide for improved density and decreased feature size and height of portions of the memory cell. For example, a preferred embodiment provides for a monolithic three dimensional memory array having an area density greater than about 5.0×10⁷ cells/mm², while another calls for a three dimensional memory cell comprising a semiconductor element over a first conductor, wherein the cell has a feature size less than 2500 angstroms. Yet another provides for a monolithic three dimensional memory array having a cubic density greater than about 2.4×10¹⁰ cells/mm³. An additional embodiment provides for a three dimensional memory cell comprising a first conductor and a first semiconductor element over the first conductor, wherein the height of the first semiconductor element before planarizing is 4100 angstroms or less.

Method embodiments are described as well. One provides for a method for making a first three dimensional memory cell. The method comprises forming a first conductor over a substrate, depositing layers of semiconductor material over the first conductor, patterning the layers of semiconductor material in a single patterning operation into posts, and forming a second conductor over the semiconductor element, wherein etch undercut between layers in the cell is less than 200 angstroms. Another provides for a method of making a monolithic three dimensional memory array comprising forming a plurality of substantially parallel first conductors, depositing a semiconductor layer stack, patterning and etching the layer stack to form a plurality of first semiconductor elements over the first conductors, filling, and planarizing, wherein the memory array has a minimum feature size less than 2500 angstroms.

Another group of embodiments provides for contacts. One provides for a contact wherein the contact and an overlying conductor comprise one or more layers of conductive material, each layer of conductive material formed by the same deposition in the contact and in the overlying conductor, said contact electrically connecting stories of active devices formed above a substrate, wherein the contact does not comprise silicon.

Others provide for methods of forming contacts. One provides for a method of forming a contact comprising depositing a first part of an electrode adjacent an antifuse, patterning and etching to form a contact void, depositing a second part of an electrode adjacent the antifuse, wherein the electrode does not comprise silicon. Yet another calls for a method of forming a contact in a memory array, said method comprising depositing a conductive layer over and in contact with a plurality of antifuses, wherein said antifuses are part of a story of active devices formed above a substrate, patterning and etching said conductive layer and insulating dielectric to form a contact void, and filling the contact void.

Other preferred embodiments are provided, and each of the preferred embodiments can be used alone or in combination with one another.

The preferred embodiments will now be described with reference to the attached drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1 a and 1 b illustrate three dimensional memory cells according to the present invention.

FIG. 2 a through FIG. 2 d illustrate prior art device fabrication.

FIGS. 2 e and 2 f illustrate viewing planes used in FIGS. 4 a and 4 c.

FIG. 3 a through FIG. 3 c illustrate etch undercut.

FIG. 4 a through FIG. 4 c illustrate stringer formation.

FIG. 5 a through FIG. 5 c illustrate misalignment between conductors and an overlying semiconductor element.

FIG. 6 a and FIG. 6 b illustrate spacing of the semiconductor elements in two dimensions.

FIG. 7 illustrates cross-sections of example shapes having substantially cylindrical shape.

FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 illustrates contact formation according to the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Johnson et al. and Knall et al. both disclose monolithic three dimensional memories which provide for high density memory arrays. The present invention provides for creation of a monolithic three dimensional memory with a structure similar to those disclosed in Johnson et al., but uses a different method of fabrication and different choice of materials, allowing for improved density, performance, and ease of manufacture.

The structure of a single memory cell 2 of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 1 a. At the bottom is conductor 4. Above conductor 4 is semiconductor element 6, and above that is conductor 8. In the present invention, semiconductor element 6 is substantially cylindrical, for reasons that will be described below. The memory cell of Johnson et al. has a similar structure, but its semiconductor element, called a pillar, is not substantially cylindrical. Turning to FIG. 1 b, in both the memory of Johnson et al. and the present invention, another semiconductor element 10 can be formed above conductor 8, and another conductor 12 above semiconductor element 10. Conductor 8 then serves as the top conductor for the lower memory cell 2 and as the bottom conductor for an overlying memory cell 18. Memory cells may be stacked vertically several stories high.

The methods of fabrication described by Johnson et al. to form an array of such memory cells make use of self-alignment. As shown in FIG. 2 a, the first conductor material 46 and first semiconductor layer stack 45 are deposited. Both are patterned and etched in a first etch to form substantially parallel first conductors and first etched lines of semiconductor layer stack in a single masking step, the resulting structure shown in 2 b. Note that the semiconductor layer stack has been etched at this point into lines 45 a and 45 b, and not yet into pillars. The gaps between the lines of semiconductor layer stack and the conductors are filled with dielectric material (not shown) to insulate the wiring and devices from one another. Next, in FIG. 2 c, the second conductor material 50 and second semiconductor layer stack 51 are deposited, then are patterned and etched in a second etch to form substantially parallel second conductors and second etched lines of semiconductor layer stack which are substantially perpendicular to the first conductors. As shown in FIG. 2 d, the second etch continues past the second conductors and etches through the first lines of semiconductor layer stack, forming first semiconductor pillars such as 45 a 1 and 45 b 1, leaving the first pillars with substantially rectangular cross-sections. The insulating dielectric is not etched. Because they were formed in a shared masking step, two opposing sides of each of the first pillars (e.g. 45 a 1) are self-aligned with the edges of the first conductor below (e.g. 46 a), while the other two opposing sides of each of the first pillars are self-aligned with the edges of the second conductor above (e.g. 50 a.) The gaps in between the second conductors and second lines of semiconductor material are filled with dielectric material.

Use of self-alignment allows for a minimal number of masking steps per device layer. Self alignment eliminates the spatial error that occurs when one layer is independently aligned to the layer below, allowing for smaller feature size. Feature size is the minimum dimension of elements in a cell.

As this process is scaled to still smaller feature size, however, two challenges come to the fore. First, as feature size gets smaller, conductors and pillars get thinner and move closer together, causing the aspect ratio (ratio of height to width) of the gaps between features to increase. When the aspect ratio exceeds about 7:1, it becomes difficult to reliably fill gaps with dielectric material using conventional techniques without creating voids in the fill. These voids can be fatal to device performance.

Another problem is that of etch undercut that occurs when etching a film stack consisting of several different materials. FIG. 3 a illustrates a stack of materials to be etched. In this example, the stack consists of a layer of polycrystalline silicon 82 (also called polysilicon), TiN layer 84, TiSi₂ layer 86, and polysilicon layer 88. Photoresist layer 80 is patterned on top, and all of the layers below are etched. Etch selectivity, which describes the etching rate of one material relative to the etching rate of another material, between polysilicon and TiSi₂ is poor, so while polysilicon layer 88 is being etched, TiSi₂ layer 86 is unintentionally etched as well, as illustrated in FIG. 3 b. That is, as the polysilicon in polysilicon layer 88 underneath the TiSi₂ layer 86 is being etched vertically, the TiSi₂ of TiSi₂ layer 86 is etched laterally.

Such undercut can damage device performance. As feature size decreases, the width of the stacks to be etched decreases. The height of the stack is unchanged, however, so the time required for etch and the amount of undercut is also unchanged. The same absolute amount of undercut on a narrower stack results in a larger percentage undercut, as shown in FIG. 3 c.

By recognizing the aspect ratio and undercut problems and solving them through process changes and choices of material, the present invention decreases the minimum feature size achievable in a monolithic three dimensional memory. The present invention decreases aspect ratio by using different fabrication methods, and minimizes etch undercut by using different materials.

The present invention affords another advantage over prior art methods and structures by preventing a problem that may arise in the fabrication steps described in Johnson et al. Depending on etch conditions, the first etch, which results in the first lines of semiconductor layer stack and the first conductors, shown in FIG. 2 b, may not yield perfectly vertical walls. Material higher in the stack is exposed to etchant longer than material lower in the stack, potentially causing sloping sides, as shown in cross-section in FIG. 4 a. The cross section is along plane P, shown in FIG. 2 e. For clarity, the slope is exaggerated. FIG. 4 b shows the same first lines of etched semiconductor layer stack filled with dielectric material D. Next the second conductors are deposited, then the second layer stack, and finally the second etch takes place.

Turning to FIG. 2 f, the second etch etches through a second layer of semiconductor layer stack, second conductors, and the first lines of semiconductor layer stack. When etching the first lines of semiconductor layer stack, this etch is selective to material constituting the first and second semiconductor layer stacks, and does not appreciably etch the dielectric material between the first lines of semiconductor layer stack (recall this dielectric material was deposited after the first etch and before deposition of the second conductors.) This second etch slices through spaced segments of first lines of semiconductor layer stack, creating pillars. Material within the first semiconductor layer stack trapped under overhanging dielectric material, between pillars, may not be removed in the second etch, as shown in FIG. 4 c. The cross section is again along plane P, shown in FIG. 2 f. This remaining material, sometimes called a “stringer,” S, can provide an unintended electrical path between adjacent pillars, e.g. between 45 a 1 and 45 a 2, and between 45 b 1 and 45 b 2 in FIG. 2 f.

Where two adjacent pillars have stringers that interfere with their electrical isolation from each other, the functioning of these memory cells can be compromised. Specifically, a write operation to one memory cell can undesirably affect one or both memory cells, i.e., a write disturb condition can occur.

The present invention, by employing an improved method of fabrication, prevents formation of stringers.

Fabrication

The fabrication process of the present invention will be described first in general terms, then specific embodiments will be described in greater detail.

The process typically begins on an insulating layer formed over a semiconductor substrate. First the conductors are formed. In the first step, a thin adhesion layer, preferably of TiN, can be deposited. Above this a conductor material, preferably tungsten, is deposited. Tungsten has low resistivity, so the conductor layer can be thinner than if other conductor materials, such as TiSi₂, were used, helping to decrease aspect ratio. The use of tungsten rather than TiSi₂ also lowers the overall thermal budget: TiSi₂ is formed by depositing Ti on Si, then annealing the materials to form TiSi₂. The temperature at some point of the processing must be at least 750 degrees C. to form the desired low resistivity C54 TiSi₂ phase. Tungsten, on the other hand, can be deposited at 400 to 500 degrees C. Reducing processing temperature limits dopant diffusion and minimizes agglomeration of materials like TiSi₂ or CoSi₂ (which may be used in transistors underneath the memory array.) Dopant diffusion and silicide agglomeration are detrimental to device performance.

Optionally, a barrier material, preferably TiN, can be deposited next. This barrier layer prevents reaction between tungsten and silicon, which in some embodiments will be deposited in a later step. (This TiN barrier layer is preferred but not essential. If included, it can be formed either as the top layer in the conductor or as the bottom layer in the overlying semiconductor element.) Next the deposited layers are patterned and etched to form a plurality of substantially parallel first conductors. The materials etched during this etch step are TiN and tungsten. TiN and tungsten have good etch selectivity, so etching of the TiN adhesion layer does not cause undercut of the tungsten layer. Next the gaps between the conductors are filled with dielectric material, preferably SiO₂, and planarized to expose the tops of the conductors, preferably by chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). The relatively short height of the TiN adhesion layer-tungsten conductor-(optional) TiN barrier layer stack allows for relatively small aspect ratio for deposition of the dielectric material in the gaps.

Next the semiconductor elements are formed. If the TiN barrier material was not deposited as part of the conductors, it can be deposited at this point, as part of the materials used to form the semiconductor elements. Above this optional TiN barrier layer, several layers of semiconductor material and an antifuse layer are deposited or grown. Semiconductor material may be doped polysilicon. Different diode-antifuse configurations are possible. Next the deposited semiconductor layer stack is patterned and etched to form pillar-shaped semiconductor elements. In most embodiments, the materials etched are silicon, a very thin layer of SiO₂, and a thin layer of TiN. Due to the etch chemistries involved and to the thinness of the SiO₂ and TiN layers, little or no undercut occurs. Next the gaps between the semiconductor elements are filled with dielectric material, preferably SiO₂, and planarized to expose the tops of the semiconductor elements, preferably by CMP. The height of the gap to be filled with dielectric is only the height of the semiconductor elements, so the aspect ratio remains low.

Next second conductors are formed above the semiconductor elements. As before, an adhesion layer of TiN is deposited, followed, preferably, by tungsten, and, optionally, a barrier layer of TiN. The deposited layers are again patterned and etched into a plurality of substantially parallel second conductors, preferably substantially perpendicular to the first conductors. As before, the gaps between the conductors are filled, preferably with SiO₂, and planarized.

The resulting structure is a bottom or first story of memory cells. By continuing to form semiconductor elements and conductors, further memory cells can be built above this first story. The upper conductors of the first story of cells will serve as the lower conductors of an overlying, second story of cells. Ultimately the memory can be several stories high.

Because the gaps between conductors are filled in one deposition step, and the gaps between pillars are filled in another deposition step, the aspect ratio of the gaps to be filled is less than if gaps extending vertically from the top of pillars to the bottom of the conductor below were filled in a single deposition step, as in the self-aligned process. Similarly, the shorter etches mean shorter etch times, minimizing etch undercut. The choice to etch materials with good etch selectivity in a single patterning step for both the conductor etches and for the semiconductor element etches also minimizes etch undercut. “Minimal etch undercut” means less than 200 angstroms of undercut measured perpendicular to an etched wall.

What follows is a more detailed description of the present invention, including a variety of embodiments.

Formation of the memory begins with a substrate. This substrate can be any semiconducting substrate as known in the art, such as single crystal silicon, IV-IV compounds like silicon-germanium or silicon-germanium-carbon, III-V compounds, II-VII compounds, epitaxial layers over such substrates, or any other semiconducting material. The substrate may include integrated circuits fabricated therein.

An insulating layer is formed over the substrate. The insulating layer can be silicon oxide, silicon nitride, high-dielectric film, Si—C—O—H film, or any other suitable insulating material.

The first conductors are formed over the substrate and insulator. An adhesion layer may be included between the substrate and the conducting layer to help the conducting layer adhere. Preferred materials for the adhesion layer are TaN, WN, TiW, sputtered tungsten, TiN, or combinations of these materials. If the overlying conducting layer is tungsten, TiN is preferred as an adhesion layer.

If such an adhesion layer is included, it can be deposited by any process known in the art. Where this adhesion layer is TiN, it can deposited by depositing a TiN material, or by depositing a Ti material and then nitriding the Ti material. The TiN can be deposited by any chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process, physical vapor deposition (PVD) process such as sputtering, or an atomic layer deposition (ALD) process. In one embodiment, the TiN material is deposited by a sputtering process.

The thickness of the adhesion layer can range from about 20 to about 500 angstroms. In one embodiment, the thickness of the adhesion layer is about 200 angstroms. Note that in this discussion, “thickness” will denote vertical thickness, measured in a direction perpendicular to the substrate.

The next layer to be deposited is the conducting layer. If no adhesion layer is provided, the conducting layer is the first layer deposited. This conducting layer can comprise any conducting material known in the art, including tantalum, titanium, tungsten, aluminum, copper, cobalt, or alloys thereof. TiN may be used. Where the conducting layer is tungsten, it can be deposited by any CVD process or a PVD process. In one embodiment, the tungsten is deposited by a CVD process. The thickness of the conducting layer can depend, in part, on the desired sheet resistance and therefore can be any thickness that provides the desired sheet resistance. In one embodiment, the thickness of the conducting layer can range from about 200 to about 2000 angstroms. In another embodiment, the thickness of the conducting layer is about 1500 angstroms.

If tungsten is used for the conducting layer, it is preferred to use a barrier layer between the tungsten and the semiconductor material that will be part of the semiconductor elements that will eventually overlie the conductors. Such a barrier layer serves to prevent reaction between tungsten and silicon. The barrier layer may either be the top layer of the conductors or the bottom layer of the semiconductor elements.

If a barrier layer is to be used, and is to be formed as the top layer of the conductors, the barrier layer should be deposited after the conducting layer. Any material serving this function can be used in the barrier layer, including WN, TaN, TiN, or combinations of these materials. In a preferred embodiment, TiN is used as the barrier layer. Where the barrier layer is TiN, it can be deposited in the same manner as the adhesion layer described earlier.

The thickness of the barrier layer in the finished device can be any thickness that will provide the function noted above, for example a thickness of about 20 to about 500 angstroms. The final thickness of the barrier layer is preferably about 200 angstroms. Note that planarization of this layer will remove some material, so sacrificial material should be deposited in anticipation of this. If there is no barrier layer on top, some tungsten will be lost through CMP. However the CMP selectivity between SiO₂ and tungsten, ie. the rate at which oxide is polished relative to tungsten, is large. Thus SiO₂ can be removed from the top of the tungsten with confidence that all of the SiO₂ can be removed while removing a minimal amount of tungsten.

The material used in the conducting layer and the material used in the adhesion and barrier layers, if present, should be chosen to have good etch selectivity.

Once all the layers that will form the conductors have been deposited, the layers will be patterned and etched using any suitable masking and etching process to form substantially parallel conductors. In one embodiment, a photoresist mask is deposited, patterned by photolithography and the layers etched, and then the mask is removed, using standard process techniques such as “ashing” in an oxygen-containing plasma, and strip of remaining polymers formed during etch in a liquid solvent such as EKC.

The width of the conductors after etch can range from about 300 to about 2500 angstroms. (In this discussion “width” will refer to the width of a line or feature measured in the plane substantially parallel to the substrate.) The width of the gaps between the conductors preferably is substantially the same as the width of the conductors themselves, though it may be greater or less. In one embodiment, the width of the conductors is about 1500 angstroms, as is the width of the intervening gaps. As noted earlier, it becomes difficult to reliably fill gaps with dielectric material like SiO₂ when the aspect ratio of the gaps is greater than 7:1. Thus the width of the gaps should be chosen such that the aspect ratio of the gaps is not greater than 7:1, and is preferably much smaller. Clearly the width can be reduced when the thicknesses of the layers comprising the conductors, and thus of the conductors themselves, are smaller.

It should be noted that this 7:1 limit for aspect ratio applies when SiO₂ is used as the dielectric fill material. Alternative fill materials, like silicon nitride, can in fact be used for reliable fill without voids to fill gaps with a higher aspect ratio. SiO₂ is preferred for several reasons, including ease of processing, low thermal budget, and low leakage as compared to silicon nitride and other dielectrics.

The width of the conductors and gap is also restricted by the selected pitch. Pitch is the distance from one feature to the next occurrence of the same feature: from the center of one conductor to the center of the adjacent conductor, for example, or from the center of one semiconductor element to the center of an adjacent semiconductor element. Semiconductor elements are to be formed above the conductors, as will be described in detail below. Each semiconductor element will be formed directly over a conductor, so the semiconductor elements and the conductors preferably should have the same width and the same pitch. The pitch of the conductors is limited not only by the need to achieve an aspect ratio no more than 7:1 for gaps between the conductors, but also to achieve the same 7:1 aspect ratio, or less, for gaps between the yet-to-be-formed overlying semiconductor elements.

Next a dielectric material is deposited over and between the conductors. The dielectric material can be any known electrically insulating material, such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride, or silicon oxynitride. In a preferred embodiment, silicon oxide is used as the insulating material. The silicon oxide can be deposited using any known process, such as CVD, or, for example, high density plasma CVD (HDPCVD).

Finally removal of the SiO₂ on top of the conductors while leaving the SiO₂ in between the conductors, a process known as planarization, is performed. This planarization can be performed by any process known in the art, such as CMP.

Alternatively, the conductors can be formed by a Damascene process, in which oxide is blanket deposited, lines are etched in the oxide, then the lines are filled with TiN and tungsten to create the conductors. The TiN and tungsten films on top of the original plane of oxide are removed by any process known in the art, such as CMP, leaving TiN and tungsten wires, with dielectric material insulating the wires from one another.

Next, semiconductor elements will be formed above the completed conductors. In general, a semiconductor element comprises two portions of a diode and an antifuse. (Optionally, a barrier layer may be included.) Several embodiments are possible. The two portions of a diode may be separated by an antifuse, forming an incipient diode that only becomes a diode when the antifuse is ruptured. Alternately, the semiconductor element may comprise an intact diode with an antifuse above and in series with it. In an alternate embodiment, a semiconductor element may comprise an intact diode formed with an antifuse formed below and in series with it. Any of these embodiments may optionally include a barrier layer as the bottom layer in the semiconductor element.

In all of these embodiments, if a barrier layer is to be used between the lower conductors and the semiconductor elements, and is to be the bottom layer of the semiconductor element rather than the top layer of the conductors, it will be deposited as the first layer after planarization of the conductors. It can be of any of the materials and deposited in any of the manners described earlier. Its thickness, as when it is deposited as part of the conductors, can be, for example, about 20 to about 500 angstroms. The thickness of the barrier layer is preferably about 200 angstroms.

Subsequent processing depends on which configuration of diode halves and antifuse is employed.

Junction Antifuse

In one group of embodiments, the antifuse is formed between two halves of an incipient diode, which becomes a diode only when the antifuse is ruptured. This configuration will be referred to as a junction antifuse. There are four most preferred embodiments of junction antifuse-type semiconductor elements. Two are incipient P+/N− diodes (in which, for example, heavily doped P-type silicon is on one side of the antifuse and lightly doped N-type silicon is on the other), while two are incipient N+/P− diodes (in which heavily doped N-type silicon is on one side of the antifuse and lightly doped P-type silicon is on the other.) Each of these diode types can be formed “rightside-up” or “upside-down”. “Rightside up” diodes will describe diodes in which the P+ or N+ portion is deposited first, forming the bottom portion of the diode, followed by the N− or P− portion, forming the top of the diode. “Upside down” diodes describes diodes in which the N− or P− portion is deposited first, forming the bottom portion of the diode, followed by the P+ or N+ portion, forming the top of the diode.

The semiconductor material can be silicon, silicon-germanium, silicon-germanium-carbon, germanium, or other suitable IV-IV compounds, gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, or other suitable III-V compounds, zinc selinide, or other II-VII compounds, or a combination. Silicon is the material used most commonly in the industry, so, for simplicity, this description will refer to the semiconductor material as silicon, but it will be understood that other materials may be substituted. In preferred embodiments, polysilicon is used. Silicon layers may be deposited amorphous, then later crystallized by heat treatment, or may be deposited as polysilicon.

To form a rightside-up P+/N− diode with junction antifuse, a layer of heavily doped P-type silicon must be formed. This layer can be formed by any deposition and doping method known in the art. The silicon can be deposited and then doped, but is preferably doped in situ. In a preferred embodiment, this layer can range from about 100 to about 1000 angstroms, preferably 200 angstroms, and have a dopant concentration of about 1×10¹⁹ to about 3×10²¹ atoms/cm³, and preferably about ×10²¹ atoms/cm³.

The antifuse can be a thin layer of SiO₂. The SiO₂ can be made by oxidizing the underlying silicon layer, or silicon oxide material can be deposited, typically using a CVD process. In one embodiment, the silicon oxide layer is grown by oxidizing the underlying silicon in O₂ plus N₂ at a temperature of about 650 degrees C. for about 60 seconds. The thickness of the SiO₂ layer can range from about 10 to about 100 angstroms, and in one embodiment is about 25 angstroms.

Above the antifuse is lightly doped N-type silicon. This layer can formed by any deposition and doping method known in the art. The thickness of the lightly doped N-type silicon layer can range from about 1000 to about 4000 angstroms, preferably about 2500 angstroms, and have a dopant concentration of about 1×10¹⁵ to about 1×10¹⁸ atoms/cm³, and preferably 1×10¹⁶ atoms/cm³. In one embodiment, silicon is deposited without intentional doping, yet has defects which render it slightly N-type.

Above this is a layer of heavily doped N-type silicon. This layer forms the ohmic contact to the top portion of the P+/N− diode. This layer can formed by any deposition and doping method known in the art. The thickness of the heavily doped N-type silicon can range from about 100 to about 2000 angstroms, preferably about 1000 angstroms. Note this is the thickness as-deposited. If this layer is subject to later planarization, as in most embodiments, it will be thinner in the finished device. This layer has a dopant concentration of about 1×10⁹ to about 1×10² atoms/cm³, preferably 5×10²⁰ atoms/cm³.

Using conventional equipment and techniques, when doped silicon is deposited in a furnace, doped silicon is deposited not only on the wafer surfaces, but also on every other surface in the furnace. If the next deposition in the same furnace is of undoped silicon, or silicon of the opposite conductivity type, outgassing of the dopant from silicon deposited in the previous deposition can compromise doping quality. This is known variously as autodoping or the memory effect. To prevent this, the semiconductor element can be “capped” by an undoped layer of silicon deposited to a thickness of at least about 200 angstroms. This undoped layer of silicon covers and seals the previously deposited doped silicon coating surfaces in the furnace, protecting the next deposited layer from outgassed dopant. This technique is described in Herner, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/859,282, filed May 17, 2001, hereby incorporated by reference. The undoped “cap” will be removed by a subsequent planarization step and therefore will not become part of the finished device. This technique can be used at any point when sequential depositions of different conductivity types are to be performed in the same furnace, and when future processing will remove the undoped cap.

For an upside-down P+/N− diode with a junction antifuse, the same layers are formed with the same dimensions and in same way, but in a different order: first the heavily doped N-type silicon layer, which forms the ohmic contact to the diode then the lightly doped N-type silicon layer, then the antifuse, then the heavily doped P-type silicon layer.

The rightside-up and upside-down N+/P− diodes with junction antifuse use the same layers as the P+/N− diodes, though with the conductivity type of each doped silicon layer reversed: A rightside-up N+/P− diode, from the bottom up, includes heavily doped N-type silicon, an antifuse, lightly doped P-type silicon, and heavily doped P-type silicon. The heavily doped P-type silicon forms the ohmic contact to the top portion of the diode. An upside-down N+/P− diode, from the bottom up, includes heavily doped P-type silicon, which forms the ohmic contact to the bottom of the diode, lightly doped P-type silicon, an antifuse, and heavily doped N-type silicon. The deposition and doping methods are as known in the fields, and the thicknesses of the layers are as described above for the corresponding layer with conductivity types reversed.

Top Antifuse

In another group of semiconductor element embodiments, the antifuse is formed on top of a diode. This configuration will be referred to as a top antifuse. As with the junction antifuse group of embodiments, the diode can be either a P+/N− or an N+/P− diode, and can be built rightside-up or upside-down. For preferred top antifuse embodiments, the antifuse is grown after the diode has been etched, filled, and planarized.

A top antifuse-type rightside-up P+/N− diode will comprise, from the bottom up, the following layers: heavily doped P-type silicon, lightly doped N-type silicon, heavily doped N-type silicon (which forms the ohmic contact to the top of the P+/N− diode), and an antifuse. The same diode, upside down, will comprise, from the bottom up: heavily doped N-type silicon, which forms the ohmic contact to the bottom of the P+/N− diode, lightly doped N-type silicon, heavily doped P-type silicon, and an antifuse.

A top antifuse-type rightside-up N+/P− diode will comprise, from the bottom up: heavily doped N-type silicon, lightly doped P-type silicon, heavily doped P-type silicon, which forms the ohmic contact to the top of the diode, and an antifuse. The same diode, upside-down, will comprise, from the bottom up: heavily doped P-type silicon, which forms the ohmic contact to the bottom of the diode, lightly doped P-type silicon, heavily doped N-type silicon, and an antifuse.

In the junction antifuse embodiments above and the bottom antifuse embodiments described below, all of these layers are deposited (or grown), then patterned and etched, the gaps filled with dielectric, and semiconductor elements and intervening dielectric fill planarized. Most top antifuse embodiments deviate from that pattern for the formation of the antifuse.

A very thin antifuse layer formed on top of the semiconductor element would be highly vulnerable to inadvertent damage or removal if subjected to planarization. For preferred top antifuse embodiments, the antifuse is formed after planarization. The doped silicon layers are deposited and doped using any process known in the art (using the undoped cap if desired), then patterned, etched, filled, and planarized to expose heavily doped silicon at the top of the semiconductor element. After planarization is complete, the exposed silicon is oxidized and a SiO₂ antifuse grown on top of it.

An advantage of the top antifuse embodiments is reduced processing time. In the junction antifuse embodiments, to deposit the layers that will form the diode portions and the antifuse, first silicon is deposited, then the antifuse is formed, either through deposition of SiO₂ or by oxidation of the top of the underlying silicon, and then more silicon is deposited. After the first deposition of silicon, the wafers must be unloaded and moved to another tool (for rapid thermal anneal, for example), to grow the antifuse. Then the wafers must be moved back to the furnace for the next silicon deposition. In the top antifuse embodiments, on the other hand, only a single deposition of silicon is required, reducing processing time and cost, and reducing exposure to contaminants cause by extra handling.

Bottom Antifuse

In another group of embodiments, the diode is formed above the antifuse. This configuration will be referred to as a bottom antifuse. As with the junction antifuse group of embodiments, the diode can be either a P+/N− or an N+/P− diode, and can be built rightside-up or upside-down. Deposition of the silicon layers, and their dopant levels and thicknesses, can be as described in the top antifuse embodiments.

If a barrier layer of TiN is used, either as the top layer of the conductor or as the bottom layer of the semiconductor element, these bottom antifuse embodiments present some challenges. If SiO₂ is used as the antifuse, a SiO₂ layer directly on top of TiN cannot be grown through oxidation, as it can when being formed on top of silicon. Instead it is deposited directly as SiO₂. It is difficult to deposit a thin stoichiometric layer of SiO₂ on top of TiN. These embodiments are thus less preferred. Clearly, other dielectric materials could be used instead.

Pattern, Etch, Fill, and Planarize

When the layers that will form the optional bottom barrier layer, the diode portions and the antifuse are deposited (omitting the antifuse, which will be grown later, in the top antifuse embodiments), the layers should be patterned and etched to form semiconductor elements. The semiconductor elements should have the same pitch and the same width as the conductors below, such that each semiconductor element is formed on top of a conductor.

With perfect alignment, the center of a semiconductor element should be located directly over the center of the conductor below it, as in FIG. 5 a. A significant amount of misalignment can be tolerated, however, as in FIG. 5 b. As long as a semiconductor element isn't 100 percent misaligned, bridging adjacent conductors and forming an electrical contact with both of them, as in FIG. 5 c, the resulting device can function successfully with substantial misalignment. The bulk of the resistance in the circuit described, namely a programmed diode/antifuse in contact with conductors, should come from the diode, which has a resistivity in the thousands of ohms due to the use of lightly doped silicon. In contrast the contact resistance between the tungsten/TiN wire and heavily doped silicon is less than 100 ohms. Therefore, even if misalignment between the wiring and semiconductor element results in only 10 percent of the semiconductor area being in contact with the wiring either above or below, the resistance will not be substantially different than perfectly aligned layers in which 100 percent of the cross section of the semiconductor element is in contact with the wiring.

Referring to FIG. 6 a, underlying conductors C1 extend in a first direction D1. If underlying conductors C1 and overlying semiconductor elements S1 are to align, then clearly the pitch P1 of the semiconductor elements S1 in a second direction D2 (preferably substantially perpendicular to the first direction D1) must be the same as the pitch P1 of the underlying conductors C1. The pitch P2 of the semiconductor elements S1 in the first direction D1, however, is not constrained by the pitch P1 of the underlying conductors C1.

Later in the process, as shown in FIG. 6B, overlying conductors C2 will be formed over the semiconductor elements. Overlying conductors C2 extend in the second direction, D2. The pitch P2 of the semiconductor elements S1 in the first direction D1 should be chosen to align with the overlying conductors to be formed above, and thus should be at a pitch P2 allowing alignment with their intended pitch P2 and orientation. As with the underlying conductors, substantial misalignment between the semiconductor elements and the overlying conductors can be tolerated.

The semiconductor elements can be formed using any suitable masking and etching process. For example, a photoresist mask can be deposited, patterned using photolithography and etched, and then the photolithography mask removed. Alternately, a hard mask of some other material, for example SiO₂, can be formed on top of the semiconductor layer stack, with bottom antireflective coating (BARC) on top, then patterned and etched. Similarly, dielectric antireflective coating (DARC) can be used as a hard mask. The resulting structure at this stage of the process is shown in FIG. 6A.

For reasons explained more fully below, rectangular features formed with feature size in both dimensions less than about 2500 angstroms using standard photomasking techniques tend to be substantially cylindrical, regardless of the shape of the mask. The semiconductor elements after etch thus will be substantially cylindrical, with a diameter ranging from about 300 to about 2500 angstroms. The width of the gaps between the semiconductor elements preferably is substantially the same as the diameter of the semiconductor elements themselves, though it may be greater or less. In one embodiment, the diameter of the semiconductor elements is about 1500 angstroms, as is the width of the intervening gaps at their narrowest point.

As noted earlier, it becomes difficult to fill gaps with dielectric material such as SiO₂ when the aspect ratio of the gaps is greater than 7:1. Thus the width of the gaps should be chosen such that the aspect ratio of the gaps is not greater than 7:1. Clearly the width can be reduced when the thicknesses of the layers comprising the semiconductor elements, and thus of the semiconductor elements themselves, are smaller.

Next a dielectric material is deposited over and in between the semiconductor elements, filling the gaps between them. The dielectric material can be any known electrically insulating material, such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride, or silicon oxynitride. In a preferred embodiment, SiO₂ is used as the insulating material. The SiO₂ can be deposited using any known process, such as CVD, or, for example, HDPCVD.

Planarization is then performed to remove the dielectric material on top of the semiconductor elements and expose their top surfaces, while leaving the dielectric in between them. This planarization can be performed by any process known in the art, such as CMP. In preferred top antifuse embodiments, a SiO₂ antifuse layer is then grown on top of the exposed silicon after CMP.

Overlying conductors can be formed in the same manner as the underlying conductors. The resulting structure is a bottom or first story of memory cells. By continuing to form semiconductor elements and conductors, further memory cells can be built above this first story. The upper conductors of the lower story of cells will serve as the lower conductors of an overlying, second story of cells. Ultimately the memory can be several stories high. In a preferred embodiment, the memory can contain from two to twelve stories. In another preferred embodiment, the memory contains eight stories.

One advantage afforded by the current invention is that in all embodiments the top layer of the semiconductor element when planarization is performed on it (and on the intervening dielectric fill) is a heavily doped layer. CMP (or another planarizing method) will reduce the thickness of the layer on which it is performed. This reduction in thickness can be difficult to control, and may vary across a wafer. The thickness of the lightly doped layer in a diode is critical to diode properties like leakage and reverse stress failure. It is desirable for all devices to have the same, or very nearly the same thickness of the lightly doped layer. Performing planarization on this layer, which results in a thickness that can vary greatly not only from wafer-to-wafer, but also within the wafer, makes for a less robust process. The thickness of the heavily doped layers, on the other hand, is much less crucial to device performance. Their thickness can vary to a much larger degree while not affecting the device performance greatly. Planarizing on these layers is far less likely to compromise device reliability.

Density

The feature size of the three dimensional memory cell of the present invention, and thus the density of an array composed of such cells, is limited by the thickness (height) of the conductors and of the semiconductor elements. Because of the 7:1 aspect ratio limit for reliable SiO₂ gap fill, the gap between features can be no smaller than one-seventh of the height of the features. The semiconductor elements are generally thicker than the conductors, and thus it is their thickness that limits the feature size of the memory cell. Recall the semiconductor element material is deposited, then patterned, etched, and the gaps between the elements filled with dielectric material. Thus, the aspect ratio immediately before dielectric fill is the relevant measure of aspect ratio. After dielectric gap fill, planarizing will remove some semiconductor material at the top of the semiconductor element, in addition to the dielectric. The height of the semiconductor element in the finished device, then, is less than its deposited height.

The height of the semiconductor element is the combined height of the barrier layer (if present), the semiconductor layers, and the antifuse. In the junction antifuse rightside-up P+/N− diode embodiment with a TiN barrier layer, for example, in one preferred embodiment, the heights of these layers are: 200 angstroms (TiN), 200 angstroms (heavily doped P-type silicon), 25 angstroms (antifuse), 2900 angstroms (lightly-doped N-type silicon), and 1000 angstroms (heavily doped N-type silicon and undoped cap.) The total of these thicknesses, the height of the semiconductor element at the time of gap fill, is 4325 angstroms. At a 7:1 aspect ratio, the size of the gap between the semiconductor elements can be about 600 angstroms.

If the smallest preferred thickness for each layer is used instead, those values are 20 angstroms (TiN), 200 angstroms (heavily doped P-type silicon), 10 angstroms (antifuse), 1000 angstroms (lightly-doped N-type silicon), and 1000 angstroms (heavily doped N-type silicon and undoped cap.) The total is 2230 angstroms, which, at 7:1 aspect ratio, allows for a feature size of about 300 angstroms.

Larger thicknesses can also be used: 500 angstroms (TiN), 1000 angstroms (heavily doped P-type silicon), 100 angstroms (antifuse), 4000 angstroms (lightly-doped N-type silicon), and 2000 angstroms (heavily doped N-type silicon and undoped cap.) Using these thicknesses, the total height is 7600, for a feature size of about 1100 angstroms. Clearly, still larger thicknesses and feature sizes are possible as well.

Decreasing feature size allows for a substantial reduction in area density; i.e., memory cells formed on or over an area of substrate. For example, in memory devices like those described in Johnson et al., the area of a memory cell can be represented as 4F², where F is the feature size. Because stories of memory are stacked vertically, the area density of memory devices (cells per area) is n/(4F²), where n is the number of memory stories. At a feature size of 0.03 micron, with twelve memory stories, then, an area density of 3.3×10⁹ cells/mm² can be achieved. At a feature size of 0.06 micron, with eight memory stories, an area density of 5.6×10⁸ cells/mm² can be achieved. At a feature size of 0.14 micron, with eight memory stories, an area density of 1.0×10⁸ cells/mm² can be achieved. At a feature size of 0.14 micron, with four memory stories, an area density of 5.0×10⁷ cells/mm² can be achieved.

It is also useful to consider cubic density of memory, or memory cells per volume. In the present invention, the volume of a cell is z4F², where z is height of the memory cell, assuming (for simplicity) that no insulation is needed between layers. Inverting this value (1/(z4F²) yields the cubic density.

The final height of the semiconductor element and barrier layer can be about 1430 angstroms or greater and the height of the conductor can be about 220 angstroms or greater. Recall that the height of the semiconductor element in a finished device is less than its as-deposited height, since material is removed by planarization. A semiconductor element and barrier layer with an as-deposited height of 2230 angstroms, after deposition of fill material between semiconductor elements, will be planarized, which can reduce its completed height to, for example, about 1430 angstroms.

The height of any individual cell with these dimensions, then, can be about 1430+220=1650 angstroms or greater. Thus, with the 0.165 micron height of a memory cell and a feature size of 0.03 micron the cubic density of these devices can be calculated to be about 1.7×10¹² devices (or bits)/mm³.

A semiconductor element and barrier layer with an as-deposited height of about 0.43 micron, could, after planarizing, have a finished height of, for example, 0.35 micron. The conductor thickness could be, for example, 0.15 micron, yielding a cell height of about 0.50 micron. With a feature size of 0.06 micron (achievable with an as-deposited height of 0.43 micron, as described above), a cubic density can be calculated at about 1.4×10¹¹ cells/mm³.

A semiconductor element and barrier layer with an as-deposited height of about 0.76 micron, could, after planarizing, have a finished height of, for example, 0.68 micron. The finished conductor thickness could be, for example, 0.18 micron, yielding a cell height of about 0.86 micron. With a feature size of 0.11 micron (achievable with an as-deposited height of 0.76 micron), a cubic density can be calculated at about 2.4×10¹⁰ cells/mm³. These area and cubic densities represent a significant improvement over other three dimensional memories.

It has been noted that the semiconductor elements will have a substantially cylindrical shape. As feature size decreases in semiconductor processing, current photolithography techniques tend to round any sharp corners on features. It is believed that this rounding occurs because photons used in the process diffract around the features in the plate used for patterning, resulting in rounded features being printed in the photoresist mask. Thus, the semiconductor element that is etched with this photoresist mask with rounded features will typically have no sharp corners.

A “substantially cylindrical” element is one with a cross section which is roughly circular; more specifically, a cross section in which no portion of the perimeter is a straight edge for a length longer than fifty percent of the longest dimension measured through the centroid of the cross-sectional area. Clearly, a straight edge will not be “straight” to a molecular level, and may have minute irregularities; what is relevant is the degree of rounding. Examples appear in FIG. 7.

The substantially cylindrical shape provides one advantage to the memory devices: reduced current leakage. Semiconductor elements having sharp corners often have current leakage at the corners. The current leakage is also proportional to the cross-sectional area of the semiconductor element, so a substantially cylindrical shape provides the smallest area for a given feature size.

It will be apparent to one skilled in the art, however, that the substantially cylindrical shape of the semiconductor elements is an incidental result of using conventional photolithographic techniques to produce very small features, and, while advantageous, some aspects of the invention could be practiced with semiconductor elements of a different shape.

Contact Formation

In monolithic three dimensional memories of the type created according to the present invention, vertical interconnects, termed zias (analogous to vias in conventional two dimensional memories), may be used to connect different stories of memory. Specifically, zias are electrically coupled to active devices on different stories. An “active device” is any device that has asymmetric current versus voltage characteristics. Examples of active devices include diodes and transistors. An active device is contrasted with a passive device, which does not control voltage or current. Examples of passive devices include resistors, capacitors, and inductors. The memory cells of the present invention include diodes, and thus are active devices.

Prior art zia formation in monolithic three dimensional memories is described in Cleeves et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/746,341, filed Dec. 22, 2000, hereby incorporated by reference. The materials and methods used by the present invention, particularly of the conductors, simplifies formation of zias.

Zia formation according to the present invention takes two primary forms, one for junction antifuse and bottom antifuse embodiments, and another for top antifuse embodiments. Each will be described in turn.

Junction and Bottom Antifuse Zias

Turning to FIG. 8, the illustration shows an array of conductors and semiconductor elements. The bottom conductors, extending in the X-direction (in this illustration coming out of the page) are labeled X₁, the ones above, extending in the Y direction, are Y₂, the ones above, extending in the X direction, are X₃, etc. As has been described, there are semiconductor elements sandwiched between each set of conductors. The array is shown when the Y₆ conductors, along with zias connecting them to the Y₄ and Y₂ conductors, are about to be formed.

Note that as in Cleeves et al., in this drawing the lengths of the Y₂ and Y₄ conductors are staggered to create “landing pads” that are accessible from upper memory layers.

To form zias for junction antifuse and bottom antifuse embodiments, first a pattern and etch is done to remove the dielectric material between the conductors where the zia is to formed, which may be any insulating material, preferably SiO₂. This etch forms a contact void, a hole where the zia is to be formed. In the preferred embodiment illustrated here, the conducting layers are tungsten, and a TiN barrier layer between the tungsten of each conductor and the semiconducting material of its overlying semiconductor element is formed as the bottom layer of the semiconductor element. The top of each conductor, then, is of tungsten. (It will be understood that other embodiments using other materials can be employed. This preferred embodiment is selected to simplify explanation.)

There are chemistries which produce high etch selectivities between SiO₂ and tungsten and between SiO₂ and TiN, allowing all the unwanted SiO₂ to be successfully etched without substantial etch damage to the exposed conductors Y₂ and Y₄.

Next the TiN adhesion layer that normally forms the bottom of the Y₆ conductors being formed is deposited, simultaneously creating the adhesion layer for the Y₆ conductors and lining the etched contact void. The TiN can be deposited by a method that creates a substantially conformal film, such as CVD. Alternatively, a method such as ionized metal plasma PVD (IMP-PVD) which preferentially deposits TiN on horizontal features, such as landing pads, can be used. Finally the tungsten conducting layer is deposited, completing deposition of the conducting layer for the Y₆ conductors and filling the zia. One sidewall of the zia has a stair-step profile. No special deposition steps or materials are required to form the zia; its layers are formed at the same time, by the same depositions, as are the layers that will become the Y₆ conductors. For two structures to be formed “by the same deposition” means in the same deposition chamber, of the same deposited material, without stopping and restarting the deposition process. The TiN in the contact and in the Y₆ conductors is formed by the same deposition. Similarly, the tungsten in the contact and in the Y₆ conductors is formed by the same deposition. The low resistivity of tungsten means zias can be long and retain good conductivity. The Y₆ conductors are then patterned, etched, filled, and planarized as usual.

Top Antifuse Zias

A different process can advantageously be used to create zias for top antifuse embodiments. The zia formation process just described for junction and bottom antifuse embodiments started with a pattern and etch step to etch the SiO₂ where the zia is to be formed, creating the contact void. This pattern and etch step could involve, for example, patterning photoresist on top of the areas not be etched, etching, then removing photoresist. If such a process were performed in top antifuse embodiments, however, the process of applying and removing photoresist could damage the antifuse immediately beneath it. Damage to the antifuse will adversely affect function of the memory cell.

The antifuse in this context is a critical film, where “critical film” describes a layer whose quality and thickness has a critical influence on device performance.

Zia formation for top antifuse embodiments will be described starting at the point illustrated in FIG. 8, when the Y₆ conductors, along with zias connecting them to the Y₄ and Y₂ conductors, are about to be formed.

To avoid damage to the fragile antifuse that could be caused by removing photoresist, a hard mask of TiN is deposited instead. This TiN layer can be deposited by any method that will not harm the antifuse beneath it (non-biased PVD, for example) and can be from 100 to 1000 angstroms thick, preferably 300 angstroms thick. This TiN layer will become the first part of the adhesion layer at the bottom of the Y₆ conductor, still to be formed.

In this embodiment, the TiN at the bottom of a conductor, in addition to acting as an adhesion layer, also acts as an electrode adjacent the antifuse. Any conductive material deposited immediately above the antifuse acts as an electrode. The TiN layer just deposited, then, is the first part of an electrode adjacent the antifuse.

To create the contact void where the zia is to be formed, the TiN hard mask and the dielectric between conductors, preferably SiO₂, need to be etched. This can be done using any pattern and etch technique. In one embodiment, a TiN etch can be performed in one chamber, then a SiO₂ etch can be performed in a second chamber. In another, TiN and SiO₂ are etched in a single chamber.

The resulting structure is shown in FIG. 9. The TiN hard mask 90 remains after the pattern and etch. A second TiN film can be deposited by any known method that will produce a conformal film; it will simultaneously line the volume etched for the zia and, together with the underlying TiN hard mask, form the bottom of the conductor. This second TiN film is the second part of an electrode adjacent the antifuse. Finally the tungsten conducting layer is deposited, completing deposition for the Y₆ conductors and formation of the zia. One sidewall of the zia has a stair-step profile. The Y₆ conductors are then patterned, etched, filled, and planarized as usual.

Alternately, for junction, top, or bottom antifuse, the conductors need not be staggered to form the landing pads shown in FIG. 8, and more conventional contacts can be formed instead, without a sidewall having a stair-step profile.

The current invention provides a method for creating a monolithic three dimensional memory array. The memory cells can be electrically connected in the embodiments described in Johnson et al. or Knall et al., but other arrangements can be envisaged as well.

The foregoing detailed description has described only a few of the many forms that this invention can take. For this reason, this detailed description is intended by way of illustration, and not by way of limitation. It is only the following claims, including all equivalents, which are intended to define the scope of this invention. 

1. A contact wherein the contact and an overlying conductor comprise one or more layers of conductive material, wherein each layer of conductive material is formed by the same deposition in the contact and in the overlying conductor, said contact electrically connecting stories of active devices formed above a substrate, wherein the contact does not comprise silicon.
 2. The contact of claim 1, wherein at least one layer of the conductive material comprises tungsten.
 3. The contact of claim 2, said contact having a first sidewall and a second sidewall, the first sidewall is opposite the second sidewall, and the first sidewall has a stair-step profile.
 4. A method of forming a contact comprising: depositing a first part of an electrode adjacent an antifuse; patterning and etching to form a contact void; depositing a second part of the electrode adjacent the antifuse, wherein the electrode does not comprise silicon.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the electrode comprises TiN.
 6. A method of forming a contact in a memory array, said method comprising: depositing a conductive layer over and in contact with a critical film, wherein said critical film is part of a story of active devices formed above a substrate; and patterning and etching said conductive layer and insulating dielectric to form a contact void; and
 7. The method of claim 6 wherein the critical film is an antifuse.
 8. A method of forming a contact in a memory array, said method comprising: depositing a conductive layer over and in contact with a plurality of antifuses, wherein said antifuses are part of a story of active devices formed above a substrate; and patterning and etching said conductive layer and insulating dielectric to form a contact void; and filling the contact void.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the conductive layer is TiN. 